Biological research generally divides into two camps

















Cell / molecular / biomedical

Ecology / organismal

Biological research generally divides into two camps

















Cell / molecular / biomedical

Ecology / organismal

BUT… the basic principles underlying both are exactly the same!

There is more crossover in these disciplines than ever before

What is the point of doing research?



  • Research allows us to:
    • Examine ideas and explanations
    • Gather information and data
    • Find and eliminate flaws in our thinking
    • ALL components of your capstone!


  • In other words, move beyond philosophy to science


  • Science values empiricism over dogma
    • empiricism = theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience
    • dogma = a principle or set of principles laid down by an authority as incontrovertibly true


Two types of reasoning used in science

Two kinds of reasoning (or logic) are used in scientific research:

  1. Inductive reasoning: takes a specific example and induces that is can be implied to a much larger group

  2. Deductive reasoning: starts with a general principle and deduces that it applies to a specific case

Generally…


  • Inductive reasoning is used in an attempt to discover a new piece of information


  • Deductive reasoning is used to test that piece of information

Lets practice: Which type of reasoning?


Every day, I get in my car to leave for work, at 8:00am. The trip takes 45 minutes, and I arrive at work on time. If I leave for work at 8:00am today, I will be on time.


Today, I left for work at eight o’clock and was on time. Therefore, every day that I leave the house at eight o’clock, I will arrive at work on time.

Lets practice: Which type of reasoning?


Every day, I get in my car to leave for work, at 8:00am. The trip takes 45 minutes, and I arrive at work on time. If I leave for work at 8:00am today, I will be on time.


Today, I left for work at eight o’clock and was on time. Therefore, every day that I leave the house at eight o’clock, I will arrive at work on time.



All dogs are mammals, and all mammals have kidneys. Therefore, dogs must have kidneys.


Hamsters, cats, humans, and platypuses have kidneys. All of these animals are mammals. Therefore, all mammals have kidneys.

The importance of model organisms




In many areas of biology, model organisms are used to gather information that can be applied more generally to other organisms


Society has decided it is ethical to perform experiments on animals that benefit human society


  • Ultimate example of Inductive Reasoning
    • but there are pitfalls

The scientific process is the method scientists use to study things


Based on observation and analysis of data:

  1. Make observations
  2. Develop a question and form a logical hypothesis
  • A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a well-framed scientific question
    • based on types of reasoning
  1. Test predictions arising from the hypothesis (with experiment or more observation)
  2. Analyze experimental data
  3. Revise hypothesis and repeat



The scientific process is ongoing.

A hypothesis is an explanation for an observation

  • A hypothesis is a tentative explanation—it isn’t written in stone


  • Occam’s razor is the principle that the simplest explanation (i.e. having the fewest assumptions/steps) is usually correct


  • A hypothesis must be both testable and falsifiable
    • a hypothesis that a ghost cast a spell on a car to make it stop working cannot be tested


  • Hypotheses should strive to distinguish between causality and correlation
    • Two things that are correlated are not necessarily causally linked


  • Other factors to consider regarding causality:
    • are there multiple causal factors?
    • Is there a direct or indirect (remote) cause?

An experiment is a test of a hypothesis



  • Predictions (if this, then that…) arise out of hypotheses that can be tested by experiments
    • Good experimental design strives to disprove a hypothesis


  • Scientists often perform controlled experiments in which an experimental group is compared with a control group


  • Ideally, experimental and control groups differ in only the one factor under investigation
    • Controls are necessary to rule out the effects of other factors that might affect results

“Proof” in science



Science does not prove ideas


Instead, it works by rejecting hypotheses based on supporting and refuting evidence to advance understanding


Findings are tentative since the REAL explanation may not have been considered


Science is based on the principle that any idea, no matter how widely accepted, can be overturned if evidence warrants it

Science is ongoing

  • The scientific process produces results that can be used in both inductive and deductive reasoning:
    • Allow generalization (inductive reasoning)
    • Supports or rejects a model or theory (deductive)


  • Research always generates more questions than answers!

Practical development of research questions







  • The research you perform depends on many factors:
    • Your interest
    • Your goal
    • Area of biological research
    • Research setting
    • Resources available

Different kinds of research have different goals



  • Scientific research can be roughly divided into two categories with different goals
    • Basic research – research about how the world works
      • Driven by curiosity
      • No obvious or immediate commercial value
    • Applied research – research with specific aims
      • To solve practical problems: technological / medical
      • Relies upon previous basic research



Both are extremely important to drive scientific and technological advancement

Examples of different research types in human health…




Examples of basic research:

  1. An investigation into the symptoms of diarrhea.

  2. An investigation into the secondary symptoms of the Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)


Examples of applied research:

  1. An investigation to determine the healing properties of mushrooms.

  2. An investigation to determine the side effects of alcohol consumption.

Science, technology, and society are interrelated


Science and technology rely on each other to provide benefits for society

Research Settings (potential careers)

The place research is being conducted determines the kinds of questions that will be investigated


  • Each setting has advantages and disadvantages
    • Academic – small institution (Shepherd University)
      • Great freedom, undergrad students
      • low budget, lack of equipment
    • Academic – large research institution (WVU)
      • Great freedom, advanced equipment, graduate students
      • constant scramble for grant money
    • Industrial – biotech, pharmaceutical, agriculture (Pfizer)
      • Advanced equipment, staff focused on a single task
      • Less freedom
    • Government (Department of Defense, USDA, NIH)
      • Some degree of freedom
      • Red tape, scramble for money